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{\*\rsidtbl \rsid2951354\rsid6712508\rsid7538442\rsid8222320\rsid9714895\rsid11676667\rsid14182586\rsid16088356}{\info{\title The idea of a feminist philosophy is interesting, for at first glance the phrase seems self explanatory, until one remembers th}
{\author Mhaire Fraser}{\operator Mhaire Fraser}{\creatim\yr2006\mo6\dy19\hr20\min45}{\revtim\yr2006\mo8\dy2\hr11\min26}{\printim\yr2006\mo7\dy31\hr22\min30}{\version81}{\edmins891}{\nofpages15}{\nofwords3398}{\nofchars19374}{\nofcharsws23792}
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\f22\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 Finding a Feminist Philosophy of Science:
\par  Snipe Hunt or Legitimate Pursuit?
\par }\pard \qc \fi720\li0\ri0\sl480\slmult1\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11676667 {\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 M.L.Fraser
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\sl480\slmult1\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11676667 {\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
\par In recent years much examination and criticism of science as an epistemology has been }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 made}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
.  The main thrust of most arguments has been that science is socially situated and therefore becomes political.  When anything becomes a tool of the political cli}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
mate it becomes agenda-laden (Lacey, 1999).  In the case of scientific discipline}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 , this negates }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 a }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
value free epistemology (Kuhn, 1962).   Because most (not all), arguments evaluating scientific epistemology are coming from corners that have been 
traditionally called feminist, the criticism and calls for a new model of science have been termed a feminist philosophy of science (Haraway, 1981; }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 Smith, 1996; Anderson, 2003}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
).  Clearly, the questioning of deeply held methodology brings up controversy.  This paper attempts to illuminate some of the}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 se}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
 questions by presenting them in a cogent format for consideration. The fundamental question posed here is: Can there be a feminist philosophy of science?
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\sl480\slmult1\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7538442 {\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 It might be best to }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 begin by }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
explain}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 ing}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  why the philosophy of science is seen as political}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 .  }{\insrsid2951354\charrsid7538442 Knowledge }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
will always be a result of the social situations to which }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 it is}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 exposed. That is to say, }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
current definitions of science are also subject to the undercurrents of politics (Gould, 1981; Harding, 1991). Who gets to do what study is tied to the political and moneyed leanings of the times. }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
This has played out at the National level, e.g. the Bush administration threatening to veto legislation on stem cell research (Frank, 2001), or at the 
institutional level seen both through university faculty committees determining which professors get tenure and can continue their research, as well as foundations determining which research projects receive grant funding.  Political jockeying}{
\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 creates skepticism about how scientific inquiry}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  gets conducted and who benefits}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  from it}{
\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 , presenting then an idea of \ldblquote bad\rdblquote  science and \ldblquote good\rdblquote  science}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
.  Good science is that which has been applauded, and bad science using a methodology or a politic that is unpopular. 
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\sl480\slmult1\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11676667 {\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  It is true that }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 researchers in the}{
\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  social sciences }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 often explore controversial}{\cf6\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
agendas.  The loudest voices are from the quarter asking for reconsideration of the Western heterosexual white male as the baseline, seek}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 ing}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  to include all }{
\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 groups }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 as populations of interest}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 , creating inquiry as socially situated}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
.  Interestingly, this quarter defines itself as feminist, though it has been pointed out that the argument of inclusion, while feminist in nature, is simply \ldblquote good\rdblquote  science (Gould, 1984).
\par }{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 Both terms, science and feminism, are contested in their meaning, reliability and applicability.}{\insrsid16088356\charrsid7538442   }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
Science is viewed both skeptically (Lacey, 1999) and as valued (Gould, 1981) although some improvements could be made (Potter, 2001).  Feminism has been argued to contain so m
any factions as to be separatist and deconstructed (Lugones & Spellman, 1983), yet the only thing that will save knowledge (Longino, 2001).  }{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 Both}{\insrsid14182586\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 terms}
{\insrsid14182586\charrsid7538442  imply gendered ways of knowing.  Further than that, they imply two }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 opposing}{\insrsid14182586\charrsid7538442  genders\rquote  ways of knowing.  }{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 S
cience}{\insrsid14182586\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 has been often presented as}{\insrsid14182586\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 being }{\insrsid14182586\charrsid7538442 genderless}{
\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 ,}{\cf6\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 exposing objective knowledge}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  for the betterment of all. }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
 But the very presentation of a value free epistemology becomes androcentric in that most studies do not examine \ldblquote all\rdblquote  groups. When speaking of gender, t}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 his is}{\insrsid16088356\charrsid7538442 
 because }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 men wrote most classic philosophy}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 ,}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 delving curiously}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  }{
\insrsid16088356\charrsid7538442 in a time when men were the only scholars (and by}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid16088356\charrsid7538442 extension, the only thinkers)}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 .  This has traditionally eliminated}{
\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  women}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 as free agents}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  and}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  holders of knowledge, except as extensions of men.
\par }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 In just the opposite way, feminism implies a gendered understanding of ideas based on one\rquote s self-concept. Particularly, the implication is the role one plays in society.  Even more specifically, because o
f its very name, feminism implies a female way of }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 understanding only, and eliminates men from the understanding of how women may perceive things, or even as }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 having }{
\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 legitimate }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 knowledge}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 .  The presentation of gendered difference is usually to the detriment of women, }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 presenting}{
\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  women as differe}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 nt and therefore less credible.  }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
Feminism attempts to reverse this by pointing out privilege and power issues, often to the detriment of the male scientists (Haraway, 1991}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 ; Angier, 1999}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 ). 
\par }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 The important meaning is not whether empiricism is \ldblquote good\rdblquote  (legitimate) science or \ldblquote bad\rdblquote 
 (biased) science, but whether or not we can revise standards for more perfect knowledge, or at least knowledge that is \ldblquote less bad\rdblquote  or less biased.  Interestingly, this falls into the realm of feminist
 philosophy. The definition of feminism as it appears in most dictionaries is the theory that argues men and women can be equal politically, intellectually, economically and socially.  To expand on this idea, feminism examines the ways in which traditiona
l
 Western thinking does or does not allow for the potential of all groups of people to be realized (Baumgarten & Richards, 2000). If science is by its very nature imperfect and does not address all groups, then the feminist viewpoint is positioned to ask r
elevant questions about how to make it better or more accurate.}{\cf6\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\sl480\slmult1\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14182586 {\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 Often}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
 critics of traditional methodologies in science who point out the gender issues of a theoretical position, }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 such as}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
 empiricism, find themselves on the receiving end of attacks which do not distinguish between sex, gender, female and feminist. At this point it\rquote s }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 necessary}{\cf6\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  }{
\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 to point out that we are not discussing a feminine viewpoint }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 or}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  a female science \endash 
 whatever these may be.  Instead, I am addressing the need for the appreciation, and not the devaluation of feminism as an }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 epistemology}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 . }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  }{
\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 Sometimes the rebuttal focuses on discrediting the discussion by insisting that the }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 gender }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 issue }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
itself is silly, and time would be better spent engaging in empiricism \endash  a bit bizarre in itself.  It is often 
unclear how or why the attack is meant, regardless, it must be stressed that feminism is a philosophy and not a gendered (female) science. 
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\sl480\slmult1\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7538442 {\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 Empiricism, }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 or}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
 positivism, as it stands alone, is an excellent model of science.  The problem is that it does not, in fact, stand alone.  Science does not and cannot exist in a vacuum, and }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 it }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
must take into account the world as it is, rather than the isolated piece of the world that any study attempts to examine. }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 The hallmark of science is controlled studies, which atte
mpt to isolate the subjects of interest from all confounding variables. The argument being made here is that it is impossible to minimize or eliminate confounding variables without first recognizing what some of them are.}{
\cf6\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 The prevailing construct }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 behind}{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442  empirical research and epistemological exploration }{
\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 is}{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 
 that pure research is for the knowledge of the thing itself.  However, it never quite filters out this way.  That is to say, the gender and race of the researcher will influence the a) inquiry, b) the findings and c) the application of the findings. }{
\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 Examples of this include the appreciation of intellectual aggression in Physics (Traweek, 1984; Easlea, 1987) and the investigation of the birth control pill by men without the consent of the women in the study
 (Scully, 1982; Corea, 1985).
\par The dangerous assumption that all knowledge is value free is not just confined to Academics or Medicine.  A muc}{\insrsid2951354\charrsid7538442 h farther reaching consequence }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 presents when these assumptions get }{
\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 taught in the primary schools}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 , or}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  when one realizes the credibility }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 subsequently }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
afforded the Great God Science. }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  That is, trustworthi}{\insrsid2951354\charrsid7538442 ness of scientific findings get}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
 enhanced by the blessing of the scientific establishment, even when such blessings may be biased or unjustified.  This is especially true when the alternative is a singular outlook, or mere opinion.}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\sl480\slmult1\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11676667 {\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
The problem with empiricism from the feminist perspective is four fold.  First, women and other groups have been systematically excluded from the practice, study and application of science. For
 women, this has been historically attributed to the intellectual and physical inability to participate.  Instead, it is an institutionalized omission, thus insuring that scientific inquiry is a masculine domain.  Second, and a subset of the first point, 
i
s that health issues specific to women have been largely ignored by the health industry.  Disorders specific to men are researched, published and discussed, while similar disorders for women are ignored or under-reported.  Examples of this include but are
 
not limited to life threatening disorders and diseases like heart disease, stroke, and lung cancers (www.cdc.gov).  In addition, women who do ask questions or seek out answers are often seen as difficult patients, further reducing the information availabl
e both at an institutional level and a personal level (Sharpe, 1995).
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\sl480\slmult1\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7538442 {\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 Third, and}{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 
 more important culturally, is the idea of the female as passive and the male as active.  This is often seen through the use of metaphor, especially in microbiology and evolutionary ideology. }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
 An often cited example of this is E.O. Wilson\rquote s \ldblquote eggs are expensive, sperm is cheap\rdblquote 
 allegory arguing that males are sexually permissive, and females miserly with affection due to the expense of raising offspring (1975, 1978).  Natalie Angi
er (1999) also makes this point when she expresses her weariness at having heard yet again from her colleagues that there are \ldblquote sound\rdblquote  evolutionary explanations for how the female \ldblquote nature\rdblquote 
 differs from the males. Women, she has been told, have a preference for simply Being, not being designed with achievement in mind, while men are designed to gallivant about, Doing things.}{\cf6\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442   }{
\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 Further, she mustn\rquote t let her feminist viewpoint interfere with seeing reality the way a \ldblquote good\rdblquote  scientist would (p. xvii).  (I found thi
s especially interesting, since she was a National Book Award finalist for her work in Evolutionary Biology).
\par Because metaphors are inherently manipulative}{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 certain credibility gets attributed towards them.  George Lakoff\rquote s book }{\i\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
Women, Fire and Dangerous Things }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 summarizes categories of the mind as evolutionary forms of consciousness based on language (1990).  The title is taken from an aboriginal word that means all three things.  }{
\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 This }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 example shows that these ideas establish metaphor}{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442  as }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 believable}{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 , }{
\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 thereby setting}{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442  up the individual sexist viewpoint as \ldblquote right\rdblquote  due to a direct correlation of \ldblquote credible\rdblquote  science.}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  }
{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
\par }{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 The }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 fourth and final}{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 part of the problem }{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 is }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
particularly worrying}{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442  because it draws on the idea that the female is a Nature based creature, while the male is a Logic based creature. }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
Specifically, Nature and Woman are one, while Metal and Man are correlated.  Once again,}{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  recasting the vote in terms of essentialism, e.g. women \ldblquote are\rdblquote  one way, while men \ldblquote are\rdblquote 
 another, }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 further backing up the pap that Dr. Angier exposes.}{\cf6\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442   }{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 What is especially }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 troubling }{
\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 is that this idea }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 explains}{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442  Nature as a \ldblquote woman\rquote s space}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 .}{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 \rdblquote  }{
\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  The term used is \ldblquote eco}{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 feminism}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 \rdblquote }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  (Merchant, 1980: Aliamo, 2001).  By }{
\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 explaining things in this way}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 , }{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 a connection between the oppression }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 of women }{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 with the 
}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 domination}{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442  of nature}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  is }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 established}{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 , setting up a diametric argument with the 
\ldblquote masculine\rdblquote  }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 technological }{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 science (}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 Easlea, 1987; }{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 Shiva, 1997}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 )}{
\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 . }{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 That is, ecof}{\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 eminism argues that the nature of woman is }{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 that of }{\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
an innocent who has historically been }{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 exploited}{\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  by man, simply because he cannot help himself}{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 .  }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
While there is indeed }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 some}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  truth here, there is more to the stor}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 y than just propagated violence. }{\cf11\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\sl480\slmult1\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14182586 {\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 The important point }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 of eco-feminism }{
\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 in relation to science is }{\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 how a blind fascination with rationalism, }{\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 positivism}{\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 
, and technological innovation has pushed away appreciation and sometimes awareness o}{\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 f the natural world around us}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 , }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
causing scientists to ignore important variables and data and coming to incorrect assumptions about the working of our world.}{\cf11\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  }{\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 This }{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 point }{
\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 strengthens the idea that science does not stand alone. }{\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  }{\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 
Further, by obedience to the authority of science we conform to gendered stereotypes, again reinforcing sexist views, this time on an institutional level.}{\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  }{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  }{
\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 Comfortingly, Merchant\rquote s }{\i\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 The Death of Nature}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
 ultimately argues that essentialism need not be used to subordinate women [or men], but instead can be turned to feminist purposes (1980, p. 369).}{\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\sl480\slmult1\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11676667 {\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 A}{\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 big }{
\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442 problem with conventional empiricism}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  has been exposed.}{\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442 
  The problem, ironically, resides not in the idea that positivism or empiricism is too rigorous or too empiric, rather that it is not }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 rigorously }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 \ldblquote }{
\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442 clean}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 \rdblquote }{\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442  enough.  Longin0 (1996, p.238) calls this \ldblquote contextual empiricism\rdblquote  and argues that the }{
\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 blameless }{\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442 observations gathered are unavoidably }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 prone}{\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442  to a}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 n}{
\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 earlier}{\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442  theoretical commitment, thus becoming context dependent. }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
 That is, the observations have been pre-cast into a conclusion based on the politics of the 
investigator.  This is problematic in itself as context of the investigation then becomes slippery, changing from moment to moment according to the observations.  Instead of simply submitting to Kant's injunctions against the very possibility of a scienti
fic psychology, Wundt\rquote s (and other\rquote 
s) assertion that the mere act of observing a phenomenon alters the phenomenon must be pointed out.  Men who study only men at work will develop an understanding of men observing men at work. But they will never be able to
 generalize their findings to women or men from different cultures or socioeconomic backgrounds. Scientists must recognize that real knowledge is socially influenced and situated}{\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442  (Keller & Longino, 1996). }{
\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 Traditionally, this was not addressed.}{\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442 
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\sl480\slmult1\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid9714895 {\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 In the past 
40 years, feminists and other scholars have attempted to approach the lack of attention to these social influences.  Specific to feminism, one of the main constructs included in the reformulation of the scientific method is the concept of gender (social c
ategory) vs. sex (biological category).  By using gender as a \ldblquote lens\rdblquote 
 through which to view science, we create something called standpoint theory (Smith, 1996).  Longino (1996) explains this to mean that knowledge, or results of empirical views, are dependen
t on the position of the subject of the study (gender, race, dominance, social position, etc). 
\par }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 Code (1991) explains that the sex (and by this she means gender) of a knower determines the knowledge of the knower.  }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
Here, the knower is defined as the individual who holds a given knowledge.  }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 This is interesting because the explanation defines itself, with the gender of the knower as the defining factor in the information}{
\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  received}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 .  The point is valid despite the seemingly circular way of making it.  The main thrust of her argument examines how philosophy is not presented neutrally.  No science is. }{
\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 This seems realistic and even rational, but at what point does the idea of a standpoint become a relative viewpoint?  That 
is, it seems that standpoint theory sets up a slippery slope on the way to relativism.}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
 Because of this, the well-intentioned and even fruitful idea of standpoint theory can muddy the waters further, unless empiricism is thrown out completely and relativism embraced wholly. }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  }{
\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 To }{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 support}{\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
 this, Bem (1993) argues a need for the depolarization of both gender and science as discourse.  Her warning however, is that to do so would require a psychological revolution in terms of our personal meanings around gender, se
x and science.  It may not be possible.  If this is true, we need to recreate the current science to include a possibility for reformation.  T}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
his would require an overhaul at the institutional level  (Lerner, 1986; MacKinnon, 1987), as well as at the personal psychological level}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  as explained by Bem.}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
\par It is now }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 academically }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 routine to point out that standpoint theory was developed for and by social scientists.  Standpoint ideologies do not}{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
 lend themselves easily to the n}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 atural sciences.  However, the more important question is not the discounting of one or another of these methods, but perhaps to embrace more than one }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
method }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 given the situation, and to avoid crediting one type of knowledge over another.  Fox Keller (1983) asks why when there is more than one model, linear or }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 interactionist,}{
\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  does the linear always take precedence?  This seems Kantian in its need to }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 categorize}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  understandings. 
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\sl480\slmult1\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7538442 {\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
Creating new ways to understand knowledge is at first glance a possible solution to the problem as it lies.  However a ca
ution must be made, to transfer or diffuse a power does not solve the problem.  It simply exchanges one privileged way of knowing for another. }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
It is possible that social values could be introduced into the mix, creating a separate context of discovery. Lon
gino (1996) points out that arguments are missing, thus it is not clear if any one social situation could produce a knowledge base (p. 270).  Moreover, if one position could be seen as superior to the others, then we are right back where we started.
\par  }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 Fausto-Sterling (1992) clarifies the modifications feminists have called for as having come out }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 of }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
many political and cultural changes.  Her declaration is that \ldblquote to hold out for a good versus a bad science analysis is to ignore the important role that feminism 
has played in forcing the re-evaluation of inadequate and often oppressive models  . . . for women\rdblquote  (p. 209). Other scientists who argue that this is not a feminist standpoint, but simply the standpoints of \ldblquote good\rdblquote 
 science return once again to the \ldblquote my science is better than }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 your science\rdblquote  standoff.  N}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 ot helpful.
\par The question we }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 come back}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  to: Can there be a feminist philosophy of science? }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 Clearly, the answer is no.  }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
A feminist philosophy of science pushes the personal agent to the forefront, }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 creating another problem of gender bias, or, a different kind of bias }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 problem}{
\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 :}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 one subject positioning.  }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 This creates a }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 place}{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
 of }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 one person isolated in a position she or he knows well and that no one else can get to - in short, }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 nowhere. }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
 This is, of course, also not helpful in the creation of reliable knowledge.  We cannot revert to the old way of understanding something because we already know it does not work well.  }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 The current model is broken. }{
\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 We need to find ways to fix it that are no
t political bandages, or simply extensions of privilege in other forms.  So, we now need feminist philosophy to criticize and create a new science.  And so the interdependence of one, feminism, upon the other, science, is seen. 
\par }{\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 Feminism gives us a framework }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
to critically assess the influence of many variables that have influenced empirical science to date and which have been ignored, producing incomplete and incorrect knowledge.  What feminism offers is a more complete way of assessing such influences than
 has existed until now and it should be integrated into our views of science. Longino (2001) and Anderson (2003)}{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442  together propose ways of \ldblquote saving the fate of Knowledge\rdblquote 
 by 1) allowing for open discourse and criticism of theoretical models, 2) creating chan
ge in the methodology where appropriate as a response to the discourse, 3) appreciation of alternate ways of inquiry, and finally 4) creating standards through which and by which respect for all modes of inquiry can be discussed.  }{
\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 So, maybe, }{\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 given this feminist framework, the answer is yes, there is a feminist philosophy of science.
\par The ongoing debate of feminism and science brings to mind a quote by Neils Bohr \ldblquote }{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 How wonderful that we have met with a paradox. Now we have some hope of making progress.\rdblquote   
\par }{\cf1\insrsid14182586\charrsid7538442 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\sl480\slmult1\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11676667 {\cf1\insrsid14182586\charrsid7538442 \page }{\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 References}{\cf1\insrsid14182586\charrsid7538442 
\par }\pard \ql \fi-720\li720\ri0\sl480\slmult1\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid9714895 {\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 Alaimo, S}{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 .}{\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442  (2000}{
\i\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 )}{\i\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 .}{\i\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442  Undomesticated Ground - Recasting Nature as Feminist Space}{\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 .}{
\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442  Cornell University Press}{\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 . Ithaca: New York.}{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 
\par Anderson, E. (2003). Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science. }{\i\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 . http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-epistemology/#trends}{
\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
\par Angier, N. (1999). }{\i\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 Woman: An Intimate Geography}{\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 . Random House: New York.}{\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 
\par }{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 Baumgarten, J.& Richards, A.}{\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442  (2000}{\i\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 ). Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism and Politics.}{\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 
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\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442  (pp.1-16). New York: }{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 Oxford University Press.
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Feminism and Science}{\cf1\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442 , E. Fox Keller and H. Longino (}{\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 Eds.}{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 )}{\cf1\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442  (pp. 264- 279). New York: }{
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\i\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 Women's Studies International Forum, 6}{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 : 573-581.}{\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 
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The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution}{\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 . San Francisco: }{\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 Harper Row}{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 .
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Biopiracy : The Plunder of Nature and Knowledge}{\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 . }{\cf1\insrsid11676667\charrsid7538442 London: }{\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 South End Press. 
\par  }{\cf1\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442 Smith, D.E. (1996). }{\ul\cf1\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442 Women\rquote  s perspective as a radical critique of sociology}{\cf1\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442 . In }{\i\cf1\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442 
Feminism and Science}{\cf1\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442 , E. Fox Keller and H. Longino (}{\cf1\insrsid6712508\charrsid7538442 Eds.}{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 )}{\cf1\insrsid9714895\charrsid7538442  (pp.17-27) New York}{
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\par }{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 Wilson, E.O. (1975) }{\i\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 Sociobiology: The new synthesis}{\cf1\insrsid7538442\charrsid7538442 . Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
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\par }{\insrsid14182586\charrsid7538442 
\par }}